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O 21 attested Assyrian settlements in Anatolia but only three have been found O Second millennium (early) the Assyrians established merchant colonies in Anatolia - with a written record of sales and contracts/trade routes abroad Anatolia plunged into a dark period with no written records Trade eventually collapsed possibly due to the breakdown of the caravan system due to a change in power in Assur or a political struggle in Anatolia Colonies also became less numerous, smaller, less economic power Near the end Assyrian traders underwent "trade diaspora" and became more autonomous and regarded Anatolia over Assyria Assyrians in Anatolia became cultural spreaders - cuneiform (only for a bit) As traders became more integrated into Anatolian society, interests diverged from Assur (see Anatolia as homeland) - could be punished Assur: merchant bankers and houses into which trade goods would come and distribution would take place = based on family ties Joint stock fund = multiple Assyrian investors in a successful trader in Anatolia - shared and lessened the risk, could expect income = encouraged integration into Anatolian society, expand sales into inner-Anatolian oriented businesses Traders at first had their families stay in Assur, later more wives would accompany their men and intermarriage also occurred Kanesh, Hahhum, Durhumit, Wahshushana, Burushhattum = five emporia in Anatolia 80 Assyrian traders in karum Kanesh = "colonial bias" Sources = 25,000 cuneiform texts (less than half readable) from c. Journey from Assur to Kanesh took about 6 weeks but regular correspondence between families Karum Kanesh had extraterritorial rights as guaranteed by King of Kanesh but under power of city of Assur who in turn would send out messages to be passed onto the other karums regulating their policies Kanesh = most important and oldest karum excavated since 1948 seat of administration of colony system led by plenary assembly had archival, storage and meeting facilities shrine of Assur traders would stop here first upon arrival in Anatolia Karums appeared in areas with big cities, an important countryside, a developed palace system and facilities for traders 30 (40 in total) Assyrian karums in Anatolia: bigger one = karum, 23 known smaller one = wabartums (under control of nearest karum) Traders important for palaces in supplying them with required goods and converting their mostly agricultural surpluses Traders stimulated economy in the form of import taxes paid to the state (3% sold tin 5% sold textiles 10% preemptive on textiles) Trading system emerged in early second millennium BC where groups of merchants would settle in cities (in merchant communities, karum) on the basis of political agreements with the territory Mesopotamia lacked metal, stones and good wood (most natural resources) in order to develop as a complex society needed to trade (conquest too expensive) Traders traveled with donkey caravans using a network of colonies and trading stations where they could live and work on the basis of treaties with the local rulers Assyrian traders exported tin, woolen textiles, lapis lazuli, iron to Anatolia and brought back silver, gold, wool The ancient city of Assur was an important emporium and a central place in the trade between Mesopotamia and Anatolia during the 19th-18th centuries BC
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Problems: ascribing destruction levels to known events, chronology based on convoluted inaccurate king list, current vague/obscure periodization of Hittite history
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Hittite texts are very important - 5 sites with large archives found in Anatolia, more texts found abroad in Syria (Ugarit, Emar, Alalah) - majority of texts ritual, some were legal/historical but none economic Cemeteries in Hittite land are very rare, nonexistent in the Empire period - due to specific burial customs? Emar - Syrian town which came under Hittite power Ugarit Finds: very little Hittite material culture, relationship depicted on tablets Excavation at sites in SE Anatolia show Hittite influence varies with politics Tapikka - found four story palatial building showing the entire Hittite sequence, found tablets, seals, Mycenaean pottery Huseyindede Tepesi - small mound city with relief vase with bull leaping scene Sapuinuwa - the residential city for Hittite kings, large public buildings, rich finds, cuneiform tablets Hattusa - central Anatolia, Corum province, bend of Kizilirmak River Recently projects tend to be recuse rather than research - a lot of illegal excavation Problem identifying Hattusha, original excavators assumed other sites - Old Testament suggests Hittites lived in Syria - discovered cuneiform tablets which identified the site